Alewine, H. S. (2010). Andragogical Methods and Readiness for the Correctional GED Classroom. Journal of Correctional Education, 61(1), 9–22.
This article by Hollisa Alewine draws attention to the importance of preparing inmates for learning. Alewine presents a study conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of educational orientation on inmates' readiness to learn and engage in appropriate classroom behavior. This study was specifically based on the need to improve readiness for the Federal Bureau of Prisons mandatory GED program. An orientation treatment that emphasized a positive environment was implemented for a treatment group to increase their positive experiences their first time in the GED classroom. One of the positive connections encouraged was that the inmates make a mental connection between education in prison and potential opportunities after their release. There was a significant difference between students that were andragogically oriented and those who were not oriented, and Alewine argues that this demonstrates how implementing positive andragogical orientation during an inmate’s first classroom experience provided a better state of mood conducive to learning.
Appleman, Deborah. “Teaching in the Dark: The Promise and Pedagogy of Creative Writing in Prison.” English Journal, High school edition, vol. 102, no. 4, 2013, pp. 24–30.
In this article, author and correctional educator Deborah Appleman, who taught a creative writing class to sixteen incarcerated men, shares her thoughts on the usefulness of creative writing in correctional education. She argues that creative writing unlocks creative potential that helps to foster the students’ love of language and provides them with a constructive and powerful outlet for self-expression. Appleman is convinced that education is an essential tool for the humanization of correctional clients, and observed within her students that learning, reading, and writing are good ways of preserving the humanity of individuals who are incarcerated. She argues that the correctional student must be placed in a classroom where he or she is valued, and in which they are invited to share their creativity; for Appleman, this often included encouraging her students to create poetry and prose.
Becktold, T. H. (2001). Brain Based Instruction in Correctional Settings: Strategies for Teachers. Journal of Correctional Education, 52(3), 95–97.
Author Toni Becktold recognizes that, with the advances of teaching methods like brain-based learning, correctional education has essentially been left out. Convinced that this sort of teaching method is beneficial in general and has potential to benefit the inmate-learner population, Becktold delineates how, perhaps with some adjustments, this sort of learning can be applied in the correctional setting. Brain based instruction can utilize tools such as music, movement, and feedback. Becktold recognizes the limits that may be placed by correctional institution’s policies, and suggests alternatives. For example, while playing music may not be allowed, students may hum; while movement may be limited, Becktold suggests the use of primarily cross-lateral movements that engage both sides of the brain (such as patting oneself on the back with the opposite hand). Becktold addresses the importance of learner’s having the opportunity to make choices and argues that the classroom should be a setting for good choices for the inmates; however, since the correctional institution generally is not an environment that provides many choices, Becktold suggests the correctional educator begin by presenting just two options when allowing for learner choices. Becktold further provides a discussion of particular issues that make the correctional classroom unique, including the prevalence of Attention-Deficit Disorder, learned helplessness, the need to create a non-threatening environment, and security issues; Becktold provides suggestions for adapting to these issues.
Behan, C. (2007). Context, Creativity and Critical Reflection: Education in Correctional Institutions. Journal of Correctional Education, 58(2), 157–169.
In this article, author Cormac Behan posits that correctional educators need to be intentional about how they think about the processes of prison education. Behan believes that correctional educators must differentiate themselves from whatever political discourse surrounds the penal system at the time. Behan recognizes that various changes in penal policy can influence the operation of correctional education. Correctional educators must have strong, independent, intrinsic motivation and convictions about the practice of educating that will prevent the dominating policies and ideologies from intervening with the quality of correctional education provided.
Boghossian, P. (2006). Socratic Pedagogy, Critical Thinking, and Inmate Education. Journal of Correctional Education, 57(1), 42–63
This article by Peter Boghossian discusses and evaluates the utilization of the Socratic Method in the education of inmates, and argues that educational interventions in correctional education that are centered around the Socratic Method may be more effective than the use of cognitive treatments such as “Moral Reconation Therapy” and “Reasoning and Rehabilitation” for increasing critical thinking and moral reasoning among inmates. Boghossian begins by delineating the historical practice of the Socratic Method and details the concept of critical thinking. He also presents transcriptions of real-life conversations with inmates that applied the Socratic Method and identifies the components of critical thinking that were demonstrated in these conversations. Boghossian posits that the use of the Socratic Method may reduce the likelihood of criminogenic behaviors and that it may help to fulfill the need for more economically feasible treatments.
Butcher, S. E. (2006). Narrative as a Teaching Strategy. Journal of Correctional Education, 57(3), 195–208
In this article, Susan Butcher explores the use of storytelling/narrative as a teaching method in correctional facilities based on the idea that this may assist inmates in practical problem solving and developing useful skills that they may be less able to learn through traditional methods of teaching due to their difficult past experiences that have already prevented them from learning successfully as conventional students. Butcher discusses an attempt to implement these methods among incarcerated males aged 17-40. Classes included the reading of stories and group discussions, and inmates generally reported that these discussions and considerations helped them to consider new perspectives in life. The use of storytelling/narrative as a teaching method appeared to increase connections between students and educators, to validate the students' experiences, and broadened the students' perspectives.
Cates, Rhiannon M., et al. “‘Building That World’: Movements of Vision in the Carceral Classroom.” Radical Teacher (Cambridge), vol. 118, no. 118, 2020, pp. 41–99, https://doi.org/10.5195/rt.2020.713.
This article examines the Temple University Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program, which presented courses of higher education that integrated students from an institution of higher education (outside students) with incarcerated students (inside students) during course instruction. This practice encouraged engagement between groups that would not normally interact, and the particular course in this study utilized writing as a worldbuilding experience and mode of activism, and explored writing as a space of hope, which the authors consider an essential concept for promoting motivation among correctional learners. The authors believe that both institutions exist as places where transformative and liberatory learning, change, and growth are possible; they argue that the carceral classroom should be designed as a collaborative space conducive to envisioning change-making.
Dewey, S., Codallos, K., Barry, R., Drenkhahn, K., Glover, M., Muthig, A., Roberts, S. L., & Abbott, B. (2020). Higher Education in Prison: A Pilot Study of Approaches and Modes of Delivery in Eight Prison Administrations. Journal of Correctional Education, 71(1), 57–89.
In this study, a research team gathered information on the perspectives of various prison staff members and administrators across eight prison administrations on the methods and success of correctional education. These administrations came from Arizona, Arkansas, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, North Dakota, and Washington, D.C. The information was gathered through qualitative interviews and observations from in-person visits. With the goal of determining some of the best practices for higher education and psychosocial programming in prisons, the study results yielded several recommendations for creating and implementing beneficial correctional education. These include that correctional educators should incentivize and celebrate successes to increase motivation, individualizing education to be centered on prisoners’ diverse needs and learning styles, foster a peer-driven learning environment including current and former prisoners in education and programming, and utilize state-specific research where possible and evaluation as central aspects of decision making in conjunction with evidence-based practices.
Frank, J. B., Omstead, J.-A., & Pigg, S. A. (2012). The Missing Link: Service-Learning as an Essential Tool for Correctional Education. Journal of Correctional Education, 63(1), 24–34.
In this article, authors Frank, Omstead, and Pigg share the results of a Participatory Action Research (PAR) study that piloted a service-learning program aimed at college-level inmates in a maximum security correctional facility. While the study was small-scale, the researchers argue that “service-learning” is the “missing link” between academic abilities and its application to the end of civic development. The researchers designed a program entitled “SLICE” (Service-Learning in Correctional Education). This program focused on promoting “academic enhancement, civic engagement, and personal growth.” Based on focus-groups conducted with inmates who participated in the program, this form of education helped them to value their rehabilitative efforts and to think outside of themselves and value performing service with others, which they and the researchers in this study consider distinct from results of mere traditional education in the correctional setting. The SLICE program encourages participants to apply their knowledge to their lives and invests in the participants to enrich their lives and seek to understand the meaning of humanity. Researchers believe that this sort of focus in correctional education will improve reintegration efforts.
Gehring, T. (2000). A Compendium of Material on the Pedagogy-Andragogy Issue. Journal of Correctional Education, 51(1), 151–163
This article by Thom Gehring seeks to stimulate the investigation of the blurred line between pedagogy and andragogy that tends to occur in the context of the correctional population due to the need to educate individuals that may possess low social maturity. Gehring explains pedagogy and andragogy and presents literature regarding whether incarcerated individuals should be approached more like children or adults in the educational process and provides insights about how an aspiring correctional educator may interpret and consider this evidence. Gehring also presents literature regarding classical prison education and the unique issues that it encapsulates. He emphasizes prison education as primarily an adult education issue, but provides ways of perceiving this educational dilemma on a continuum of human development in general.
Hartnett, Stephen John., et al. Working for Justice a Handbook of Prison Education and Activism. University of Illinois Press, 2013.
This book discusses the efforts made by the “Prison Communication, Activism, Research, and Education” collective (PCARE) through programs in twelve states. Hands-on case studies evaluating educational initiatives, successful person-based programs, and activist-oriented analysis. Authors devote time to evaluating service-learning in prison facilities and evaluating this as a transformative practice, arguing that interaction is a key component of this practice, and also discuss the benefits of prison writing workshops, especially encouraging incarcerated students to work on autobiographies.
Kuster, Byron. “Methods to Increase Educational Effectiveness In an Adult Correctional Setting.” Journal of Correctional Education (1974), vol. 49, no. 2, 1998, pp. 67–72.
After a conversation with the education director of the women’s prison in Shokopee, Minnesota, author Kuster was inspired to practice what the education director had correctional educators do on a regular basis: think through interactions with incarcerated individuals that the educator has had throughout the teaching experience, consider their rationale(s), and sometimes compare that with existing research on correctional education. Kuster discussed his attempts to reduce the fear of correctional learners through a “thorough orientation.” He would provide them a general overview of the educational program, careful not to overwhelm them with details, and make himself open to questions; this type of orientation, he noticed, was emphasized by previous research, citing Osa Coffey.
Kuster also had his students visualize their goals by completing questionnaires that allowed them to explain what they hoped to achieve through education, and how this education would benefit them. The Teachers and Students collaborate to determine an overall educational goal, and divide it into individual level goals to provide accountability for the student as he or she moves towards that goal. As other researchers have mentioned, Kuster noted that the classroom ought to be shaped with “intention,” and be an atmosphere marked by encouragement, or what Kuster called “cheerleading.” Finally, Kuster discusses the importance of continuing education and providing resources accessible to correctional learners after their release.
Matthews, S. (2000). Each Day is a Challenge: Paving the Way for Success in the Prison Classroom. Journal of Correctional Education, 51(1), 179–182
In this article, author Sandra Matthews seeks to help correctional educators establish the appropriate mindset for the unequivocally challenging work associated with prison education. Matthews discusses existing perceptions of inmates and argues how they should be thought of and treated by correctional educators. She argues that a correctional educator must always prioritize the personhood and autonomy of the inmate-learners, have a similar mindset as one would have in providing remedial or special education, learn to read the students, and engage in and promote optimism and hope for the future.
McKinney, D., & Cotronea, M. A. (2011). Using Self Determination Theory in Correctional Education Program Development. Journal of Correctional Education, 62(3), 175–193.
In this article, McKinney and Cotronea present a study in which they attempted to design a course to be used in correctional education that would address the components of self-determination theory. They posit that correctional education will be more effective where the tenets of self-determination theory are addressed. These tenets include sense of choice, relatedness (understanding how the course may be useful/its value), and connection between instructor and student. There were multiple iterations of the course, and the researchers utilized feedback from inmates and course evaluations they completed in order to adjust the course. While the authors recognize that it is difficult to obtain external validity from their particular study due to the small sample size they used, they posit that, in designing educational programs for the correctional population, correctional educators should make an effort to address the tenets of self-determination theory to increase the effectiveness of the course they are delivering.
Muth, B. (2008). Radical conversations: Part one social-constructivist methods in the ABE classroom. Journal of Correctional Education, 59(3), 261-281. Retrieved from http://proxy.campbell.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/radical-conversations-part-one-social/docview/229826392/se-2
Author B. Muth identifies a disparity between traditional adult education theory and the education of correctional learners. While building on background knowledge and life experiences is generally emphasized in traditional adult education, it is not so in correctional education. Muth claims that this can cause the prison classroom to be a place of silencing, in which conversations about life experiences and personal literacy needs are not accepted. Muth questions why mainstream adult learning methods are not adopted in correctional education and begins an argument for social constructivist instruction methods in correctional settings. Muth expresses that there may be initial resistance among learners because many of them have the perception that education must involve mainly transactions from the educator to the student. However, Muth argues that social-constructivist methods are useful as they value learners’ interpretations of life experiences, values their discourses, and helps them to share control of their curriculum, and that utilizing this method will be a tool against the historically silencing property of providing education in a correctional institution. One especially emphasized social-constructivist practice was letter-writing.
Seay. (1966). The Roles of the Teacher for the Effective Use of Programmed Instruction in a Correctional Setting.
In this article, author Donna Seay emphasizes the importance of correctional educators realizing the different roles he or she occupies. First, according to Seay, educators should make a genuine effort to understand to the best of their ability the background that their students are likely coming from, and then comprehend and occupy their various roles appropriately. Seay argues that the correctional educator proverbially occupies roles as a “friend,” “doctor,” and “manager.”
In the role of “friend,” the educator needs to have the ability to provide advice and counsel, to listen actively, accept the student with humanity and value of his or her personhood, and help the individual address his or her problems. In the role of “doctor,” the educator “diagnoses” and “prescribes” assistance for the student’s learning difficulties, addresses the student’s individual needs, and stress methods of application and specific knowledge. In the role of “manager,” the correctional educator provides supervision, motivation, and rewards, through well-planned group and individual instruction, which Seay says may be combined through programmed lectures, films, and games.
Steurer, S. (2000). Best Practices: The Correctional Education Program, Maryland State Department of Education. Journal of Correctional Education, 51(1), 165–167.
This article delineates two successful and beneficial programs implemented in correctional education in Maryland, including a peer tutoring program and special education program. The peer tutoring program allowed inmates to assist teachers as well as their fellow inmates in their educational pursuits. Despite initial fears that allowing inmates to tutor their peers would result in an unhealthy and abusive power dynamic, it is argued in this article that the results of allowing this were largely positive and created an opportunity for those inmates who participated to practice prosocial behaviors.
Winters, C. A. (2000). Promising Practices in Adult Correctional Education. Journal of Correctional Education, 51(4), 312.
Despite the many obstacles that cause difficulty to an incarcerated population of students while pursuing education, author Clyde Winters demonstrates that there are new learning approaches that seek to accommodate these learners. In this article, Winters addresses some psycho-social cognitive teaching methods that individuals assisting in prison education have implemented. Winters addresses the need to help the inmate learner population become more active students, and presents a method of increasing metacognition known as “RTAC.” This teaching method includes Remedial instruction, Tutoring for all the students who may need it, and, finally, an Alternative Curriculum that promotes the inmate-learner’s metacognitive skills. In support of the RTAC teaching method, Winters explains how correctional educators may use computer managed instruction, social and moral education, essay writing, and language arts to support inmate-learners in their educational process.
Zaro, D. (2000). The Self Actualized Correctional Educator. Journal of Correctional Education, 51(1), 191–193
In this article, Dennis Zaro addresses the complex nature of working in correctional education and explains some issues that cause problems for the correctional educator, often resulting in burnout and a lack of fulfillment. These problems include both the population that the educator is trying to teach and the environmental context that generally does not value these educational attempts. Zaro argues that correctional educators need to be self-actualized and have a solid understanding of the criminal lifestyle.